6.16. Operator Reflection¶

When accessing an attribute
setattr(obj, attrname, value) -> None
delattr(obj, attrname) -> None
getattr(obj, attrname, default) -> Any
hasattr(obj, attrname) -> bool
__setattr__(self, attrname, value) -> None
__delattr__(self, attrname) -> None
__getattribute__(self, attrname) -> Any
__getattr__(self, attrname) -> Any

Reflection is the ability of a program to examine and modify its own structure and behavior at runtime. In Python, reflection is supported through a number of built-in functions and modules.

The inspect module provides a set of functions for introspecting Python objects, such as classes, functions, and modules. These functions can be used to examine the attributes, methods, and source code of an object, as well as its inheritance hierarchy and type information.

Here's an example of using the inspect module to examine the attributes and methods of a class:

>>> import inspect
>>>
>>> class MyClass:
...     def __init__(self, x, y):
...         self.x = x
...         self.y = y
...
...     def my_method(self, z):
...         return self.x + self.y + z
>>>
>>> # Use inspect to examine the attributes and methods of MyClass
>>> print(inspect.getmembers(MyClass))  
[('__class__', <class 'type'>),
 ('__delattr__', <slot wrapper '__delattr__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__dict__', mappingproxy({'__module__': '__main__',
                            '__init__': <function MyClass.__init__ at 0x...>,
                            'my_method': <function MyClass.my_method at 0x...>,
                            '__dict__': <attribute '__dict__' of 'MyClass' objects>,
                            '__weakref__': <attribute '__weakref__' of 'MyClass' objects>,
                            '__doc__': None})),
 ('__dir__', <method '__dir__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__doc__', None),
 ('__eq__', <slot wrapper '__eq__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__format__', <method '__format__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__ge__', <slot wrapper '__ge__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__getattribute__', <slot wrapper '__getattribute__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__getstate__', <method '__getstate__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__gt__', <slot wrapper '__gt__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__hash__', <slot wrapper '__hash__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__init__', <function MyClass.__init__ at 0x...>),
 ('__init_subclass__', <built-in method __init_subclass__ of type object at 0x...>),
 ('__le__', <slot wrapper '__le__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__lt__', <slot wrapper '__lt__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__module__', '__main__'),
 ('__ne__', <slot wrapper '__ne__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__new__', <built-in method __new__ of type object at 0x...>),
 ('__reduce__', <method '__reduce__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__reduce_ex__', <method '__reduce_ex__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__repr__', <slot wrapper '__repr__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__setattr__', <slot wrapper '__setattr__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__sizeof__', <method '__sizeof__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__str__', <slot wrapper '__str__' of 'object' objects>),
 ('__subclasshook__', <built-in method __subclasshook__ of type object at 0x...>),
 ('__weakref__', <attribute '__weakref__' of 'MyClass' objects>),
 ('my_method', <function MyClass.my_method at 0x...>)]

In this example, the getmembers() function from the inspect module is used to examine the attributes and methods of the MyClass class. The output shows a list of tuples, where each tuple contains the name and value of an attribute or method of the class.

Another way to use reflection in Python is through the getattr() and setattr() built-in functions. These functions allow you to get and set attributes of an object dynamically at runtime, based on their name.

Here's an example of using getattr() and setattr() to get and set attributes of an object:

>>> class MyClass:
...     def __init__(self, x, y):
...         self.x = x
...         self.y = y
>>>
>>> # Create an instance of MyClass
>>> obj = MyClass(1, 2)
>>>
>>> # Use getattr to get the value of an attribute dynamically
>>> x_value = getattr(obj, 'x')
>>> print(x_value)
1
>>>
>>> # Use setattr to set the value of an attribute dynamically
>>> setattr(obj, 'y', 3)
>>> print(obj.y)
3

In this example, getattr() is used to get the value of the x attribute of the obj instance of MyClass, and setattr() is used to set the value of the y attribute of obj to 3.

Protocol:

>>> class Reflection:
...
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         ...
...
...     def __delattr__(self, attrname):
...         ...
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         ...
...
...     def __getattr__(self, attrname):
...         ...

6.16.1. Problem¶

>>> class Point:
...     x = property()
...     y = property()
...     z = property()
...
...     @x.setter
...     def x(self, value):
...         if value < 0:
...             raise ValueError('Coordinate cannot be negative')
...         self._x = value
...
...     @x.getter
...     def x(self):
...         return self._x
...
...     @y.setter
...     def y(self, value):
...         if value < 0:
...             raise ValueError('Coordinate cannot be negative')
...         self._y = value
...
...     @y.getter
...     def y(self):
...         return self._y
...
...     @z.setter
...     def z(self, value):
...         if value < 0:
...             raise ValueError('Coordinate cannot be negative')
...         self._z = value
...
...     @z.getter
...     def z(self):
...         return self._z

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.y = 2
>>> pt.z = 3
>>>
>>> pt.x = -1
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Coordinate cannot be negative
>>>
>>> pt.y = -2
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Coordinate cannot be negative
>>>
>>> pt.z = -3
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Coordinate cannot be negative

6.16.2. Set Attribute¶

Called when trying to set attribute to a value
Typing obj.attrname = value
Will call setattr(obj, attrname, value)
Which triggers obj.__setattr__(attrname, value)

>>> class Point:
...     x: int
...     y: int
...     z: int
...
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         if value < 0:
...             raise ValueError('Coordinate cannot be negative')
...         super().__setattr__(attrname, value)

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.y = 2
>>> pt.z = 3

>>> pt.x = -1
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Coordinate cannot be negative
>>>
>>> pt.y = -2
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Coordinate cannot be negative
>>>
>>> pt.z = -3
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Coordinate cannot be negative

This is because, when you do: pt.x = 1 Python will call setattr(pt, 'x', 1) for you, which triggers pt.__setattr__('x', 1).

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.x
1

>>> pt = Point()
>>> setattr(pt, 'x', 1)
>>> pt.x
1

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.__setattr__('x', 1)
>>> pt.x
1

6.16.3. Delete Attribute¶

Called when trying to delete attribute
Typing del obj.attrname
Will call delattr(obj, attrname)
Which triggers mark.__delattr__(name)

>>> class Point:
...     x: int
...     y: int
...     z: int
...
...     def __delattr__(self, attrname):
...         self.__setattr__(attrname, 0)

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.y = 2
>>> pt.z = 3

>>> del pt.x, pt.y, pt.z
>>> pt.x, pt.y, pt.z
(0, 0, 0)

>>> del pt.x
>>> pt.x
0

>>> delattr(pt, 'x')
>>> pt.x
0

>>> pt.__delattr__('x')
>>> pt.x
0

6.16.4. Get Attribute If Exists¶

Called for every time, when you want to access any attribute
Before even checking if this attribute exists
If attribute is not found, then raises AttributeError and calls __getattr__()
Typing obj.attrname
Will call getattr(obj, attrname)
Which triggers obj.__getattribute__(attrname)
If ok: then return value
If error: then call obj.__getattr__(attrname)

>>> class Point:
...     x: int
...     y: int
...     z: int
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname == 'y':
...             raise PermissionError(f'Attribute {attrname} access is forbidden')
...         return super().__getattribute__(attrname)

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.y = 2
>>> pt.z = 3

>>> pt.x
1

>>> pt.y
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Attribute y access is forbidden

6.16.5. Get Attribute If Missing¶

Called whenever you request an attribute that hasn't already been defined
It will not execute, when attribute already exist
Implementing a fallback for missing attributes

>>> class Point:
...     x: int
...     y: int
...     z: int
...
...     def __getattr__(self, attrname):
...         print(f'Attribute {attrname} does not exist')
...         super().__setattr__(attrname, 0)
...         print(f'Attribute {attrname} initialized with value 0')

>>> pt = Point()

>>> vars(pt)
{}

>>> pt.x
Attribute x does not exist
Attribute x initialized with value 0
>>>
>>> pt.x
0

>>> vars(pt)
{'x': 0}

6.16.6. Has Attribute¶

Check if object has attribute
There is no __hasattr__() method
Calling hasattr(obj, attrname)
Will call __getattribute__() and checks if raises AttributeError
If no exception, then return True
If exception, then call __getattr__() and check
If __getattr__() succeeds then return True
If __getattr__() fail then return False

>>> class Point:
...     x: int
...     y: int
...     z: int

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.y = 2

>>> hasattr(pt, 'x')
True
>>>
>>> hasattr(pt, 'y')
True
>>>
>>> hasattr(pt, 'z')
False
>>>
>>> hasattr(pt, 'other')
False

6.16.7. Use Case - 0x01¶

>>> class Point:
...     x: int
...     y: int
...     z: int
...
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         if attrname not in ('x', 'y', 'z'):
...             raise NameError('You can set only x, y, z attributes')
...         if type(value) not in (int,float):
...             raise TypeError('Attribute value must be int or float')
...         if value < 0:
...             raise ValueError('Attribute value cannot be negative')
...         return super().__setattr__(attrname, value)

>>> pt = Point()
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.y = 2
>>> pt.z = 3
>>>
>>> pt.x = -1
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Attribute value cannot be negative
>>>
>>> pt.x = 'one'
Traceback (most recent call last):
TypeError: Attribute value must be int or float
>>>
>>> pt.notexisting = 1
Traceback (most recent call last):
NameError: You can set only x, y, z attributes

6.16.8. Use Case - 0x02¶

Get Attribute Both

>>> class Point:
...     x: int
...     y: int
...     z: int
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname == 'y':
...             raise PermissionError('Attribute y access is forbidden')
...         return super().__getattribute__(attrname)
...
...     def __getattr__(self, attrname):
...         print(f'Attribute {attrname} does not exist')
...         super().__setattr__(attrname, 0)
...         print(f'Attribute {attrname} initialized with value 0')

>>> pt = Point()
>>>
>>> pt.x = 1
>>> pt.y = 2
>>>
>>> vars(pt)
{'x': 1, 'y': 2}

>>> pt.x
1

>>> pt.y
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Attribute y access is forbidden

>>> pt.z
Attribute z does not exist
Attribute z initialized with value 0
>>>
>>> pt.z
0

>>> vars(pt)
{'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'z': 0}

6.16.9. Use Case - 0x03¶

>>> class User:
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Field is protected')
...         else:
...             return super().__setattr__(attrname, value)
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User()
>>> mark.name = 'Mark Watney'
>>> print(mark.name)
Mark Watney
>>>
>>> mark._salary = 1000
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Field is protected

6.16.10. Use Case - 0x04¶

>>> class User:
...     def __delattr__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Field is protected')
...         else:
...             return super().__delattr__(attrname)
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User()
>>> mark.name = 'Mark Watney'
>>> mark._salary = 1000
>>>
>>> del mark.name
>>> del mark._salary
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Field is protected

6.16.11. Use Case - 0x05¶

>>> class User:
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Field is protected')
...         else:
...             return super().__getattribute__(attrname)
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User()
>>>
>>> mark.name = 'Mark Watney'
>>> print(mark.name)
Mark Watney
>>>
>>> print(mark._salary)
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Field is protected

6.16.12. Use Case - 0x06¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, name):
...         self.name = name
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User('Mark Watney')
>>>
>>> hasattr(mark, 'name')
True
>>>
>>> hasattr(mark, 'mission')
False
>>>
>>> mark.mission = 'Ares3'
>>> hasattr(mark, 'mission')
True

6.16.13. Use Case - 0x07¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self):
...         self.name = None
...
...     def __getattr__(self, attrname):
...         return 'Sorry, field does not exist'
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User()
>>> mark.name = 'Mark Watney'
>>>
>>> print(mark.name)
Mark Watney
>>>
>>> print(mark._salary)
Sorry, field does not exist

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self):
...         self.name = None
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         print('Getattribute called... ')
...         result = super().__getattribute__(attrname)
...         print(f'Result was: "{result}"')
...         return result
...
...     def __getattr__(self, attrname):
...         print('Not found. Getattr called...')
...         print(f'Creating attribute {attrname} with `None` value')
...         super().__setattr__(attrname, None)
>>>
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User()
>>> mark.name = 'Mark Watney'
>>>
>>> mark.name  
Getattribute called...
Result was: "Mark Watney"
'Mark Watney'
>>>
>>> mark._salary  
Getattribute called...
Not found. Getattr called...
Creating attribute _salary with `None` value
>>>
>>> mark._salary  
Getattribute called...
Result was: "None"

6.16.14. Use Case - 0x08¶

>>> class User:
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Field is protected')
...         else:
...             return super().__getattribute__(attrname)
...
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Field is protected')
...         else:
...             return super().__setattr__(attrname, value)
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User()
>>>
>>> mark.name = 'Mark Watney'
>>> print(mark.name)
Mark Watney
>>>
>>> mark._salary = 1000
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Field is protected
>>>
>>> print(mark._salary)
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Field is protected

6.16.15. Use Case - 0x09¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney')
>>>
>>> if mark._salary is None:
...     mark._salary = 1000
Traceback (most recent call last):
AttributeError: 'User' object has no attribute '_salary'
>>>
>>>
>>> if not hasattr(mark, '_salary'):
...     mark._salary = 1000
>>>
>>> print(mark._salary)
1000

>>> def input(prompt):
...     return '_salary'
>>>
>>>
>>> attrname = input('Type attribute name: ')   # _salary
>>> value = getattr(mark, attrname, 'no such attribute')
>>> print(value)  
1000

>>> def input(prompt):
...     return 'notexisting'
>>>
>>>
>>> attrname = input('Type attribute name: ')  # notexisting
>>> value = getattr(mark, attrname, 'no such attribute')
>>> print(value)
no such attribute

6.16.16. Use Case - 0x0A¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname, username, password):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...         self._username = username
...         self._password = password
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname in ('_username', '_password'):
...             raise PermissionError('Access to this field is forbidden')
...         return super().__getattribute__(attrname)

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney', username='mwatney', password='Ares3')

>>> mark.firstname
'Mark'
>>> mark.lastname
'Watney'

>>> mark._username
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden
>>>
>>> mark._password
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> vars(mark)  
{'firstname': 'Mark',
 'lastname': 'Watney',
 '_username': 'mwatney',
 '_password': 'Ares3'}

6.16.17. Use Case - 0x0B¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname, username, password):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...         self._username = username
...         self._password = password
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         return super().__getattribute__(attrname)
...
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         if not hasattr(self, attrname) and attrname in ('_username', '_password'):
...             return super().__setattr__(attrname, value)
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Access to this field is forbidden')
...         return super().__setattr__(attrname, value)

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney', username='mwatney', password='Ares3')

>>> mark._salary = 1000
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> vars(mark)  
{'firstname': 'Mark',
 'lastname': 'Watney',
 '_username': 'mwatney',
 '_password': 'Ares3'}

>>> mark._username = 'mlewis'
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

6.16.18. Use Case - 0x0C¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname, username, password):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...         self._username = username
...         self._password = password
...
...     def __delattr__(self, attrname):
...         self.__setattr__(attrname, None)

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney', username='mwatney', password='Ares3')

>>> vars(mark)  
{'firstname': 'Mark',
 'lastname': 'Watney',
 '_username': 'mwatney',
 '_password': 'Ares3'}

>>> del mark._username
>>> del mark._password

>>> vars(mark)  
{'firstname': 'Mark',
 'lastname': 'Watney',
 '_username': None,
 '_password': None}

6.16.19. Use Case - 0x0D¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname, username, password):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...         self._username = username
...         self._password = password
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Access to this field is forbidden')
...         return super().__getattribute__(attrname)

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney', username='mwatney', password='Ares3')

>>> vars(mark)
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden
>>>
>>> mark.__dict__
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> dir(mark)
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden
>>>
>>> mark.__dir__()
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> help(mark)
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden
>>>
>>> mark.__doc__
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> type(mark)
<class '__main__.User'>
>>>
>>> mark.__class__
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

6.16.20. Use Case - 0x0E¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname, username, password):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...         self._username = username
...         self._password = password
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname.startswith('_') and not attrname.startswith('__'):
...             raise PermissionError('Access to this field is forbidden')
...         return super().__getattribute__(attrname)

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney', username='mwatney', password='Ares3')

>>> vars(mark)  
{'firstname': 'Mark',
 'lastname': 'Watney',
 '_username': 'mwatney',
 '_password': 'Ares3'}

>>> mark._username
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> mark._password
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

6.16.21. Use Case - 0x0F¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname, phone, email, username, password):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...         self._phone = phone
...         self._email = email
...         self.__username = username
...         self.__password = password
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname.startswith('_') and not attrname.startswith('__'):
...             raise PermissionError('Access to this field is forbidden')
...         return super().__getattribute__(attrname)

>>> mark = User(
...     firstname='Mark',
...     lastname='Watney',
...     phone='+1 (234) 555 1337',
...     email='mwatney@nasa.gov',
...     username='mwatney',
...     password='Ares3',
... )

>>> vars(mark)  
{'firstname': 'Mark',
 'lastname': 'Watney',
 '_phone': '+1 (234) 555 1337',
 '_email': 'mwatney@nasa.gov',
 '_User__username': 'mwatney',
 '_User__password': 'Ares3'}

>>> mark._email
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> mark._phone
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> mark._User__username
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

>>> mark._User__password
Traceback (most recent call last):
PermissionError: Access to this field is forbidden

6.16.22. Use Case - 0x10¶

>>> class Immutable:
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         raise PermissionError('Immutable')

>>> class Protected:
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         if attrname.startswith('_'):
...             raise PermissionError('Field is protected')
...         else:
...             return super().__setattr__(attrname, value)

6.16.23. Use Case - 0x11¶

>>> class Temperature:
...     kelvin: float
...
...     def __init__(self, kelvin):
...         self.kelvin = kelvin
...
...     def __setattr__(self, attrname, value):
...         if attrname == 'kelvin' and value < 0.0:
...             raise ValueError('Kelvin temperature cannot be negative')
...         else:
...             return super().__setattr__(attrname, value)
>>>
>>>
>>> t = Temperature(100)
>>>
>>> t.kelvin = 20
>>> print(t.kelvin)
20
>>>
>>> t.kelvin = -10
Traceback (most recent call last):
ValueError: Kelvin temperature cannot be negative

6.16.24. Use Case - 0x12¶

>>> class Temperature:
...     kelvin: float
...     celsius: float
...     fahrenheit: float
...
...     def __getattr__(self, attrname):
...         if attrname == 'kelvin':
...             return super().__getattribute__('kelvin')
...         if attrname == 'celsius':
...             return self.kelvin - 273.15
...         if attrname == 'fahrenheit':
...             return (self.kelvin-273.15) * 1.8 + 32
>>>
>>>
>>> t = Temperature()
>>> t.kelvin = 373.15
>>>
>>> print(t.kelvin)
373.15
>>> print(t.celsius)
100.0
>>> print(t.fahrenheit)
212.0

6.16.25. Use Case - 0x13¶

>>> class Container:
...     def __init__(self, **kwargs: dict) -> None:
...         for key, value in kwargs.items():
...             setattr(self, key, value)
>>>
>>>
>>> a = Container(firstname='Pan', lastname='Twardowski')
>>> vars(a)
{'firstname': 'Pan', 'lastname': 'Twardowski'}
>>>
>>> b = Container(color='red')
>>> vars(b)
{'color': 'red'}
>>>
>>> c = Container(min=1, max=10)
>>> vars(c)
{'min': 1, 'max': 10}

6.16.26. Use Case - 0x14¶

>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname, username, password):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...         self._password = password
...         self._username = username
...
...     def __getattribute__(self, name):
...         if name == '__dict__':
...             output = super().__getattribute__(name).copy()
...             del output['_password']
...             del output['_username']
...             return output
...         if name.startswith('_') and not name.startswith('__'):
...             raise PermissionError
...         return super().__getattribute__(name)
>>>
>>>
>>> mark = User(
...     firstname='Mark',
...     lastname='Watney',
...     username='mwatney',
...     password='Ares3',
... )

Show vars, note that there is no username and password:

>>> vars(mark)
{'firstname': 'Mark', 'lastname': 'Watney'}

Show dir, note that there is no username and password:

>>> dir(mark)  
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
 '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getstate__', '__gt__',
 '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__',
 '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
 '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__',
 '__weakref__', 'firstname', 'lastname']

6.16.27. Assignments¶

Code 6.29. Solution¶

"""
* Assignment: Protocol Reflection Delattr
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 2 lines
* Time: 3 min

English:
    1. Create class `Point` with `x`, `y`, `z` attributes
    2. Prevent deleting attributes
    3. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Stwórz klasę `Point` z atrybutami `x`, `y`, `z`
    2. Zablokuj usuwanie atrybutów
    3. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0

    >>> pt = Point(1, 2, 3)
    >>> pt.x, pt.y, pt.z
    (1, 2, 3)

    >>> del pt.x
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    PermissionError: Cannot delete attributes

    >>> del pt.notexisting
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    PermissionError: Cannot delete attributes
"""

from dataclasses import dataclass


@dataclass
class Point:
    x: int
    y: int
    z: int

Code 6.30. Solution¶

"""
* Assignment: Protocol Reflection Setattr
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 4 lines
* Time: 5 min

English:
    1. Create class `Point` with `x`, `y`, `z` attributes
    2. Prevent creation of new attributes
    3. Allow to modify values of `x`, `y`, `z`
    4. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Stwórz klasę `Point` z atrybutami `x`, `y`, `z`
    2. Zablokuj tworzenie nowych atrybutów
    3. Zezwól na modyfikowanie wartości `x`, `y`, `z`
    4. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0

    >>> pt = Point(1, 2, 3)
    >>> pt.x, pt.y, pt.z
    (1, 2, 3)
    >>> pt.notexisting = 10
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    PermissionError: Cannot set other attributes than x, y, z
    >>> pt.x = 10
    >>> pt.y = 20
    >>> pt.z = 30
    >>> pt.x, pt.y, pt.z
    (10, 20, 30)
"""

from dataclasses import dataclass


@dataclass
class Point:
    x: int
    y: int
    z: int

Code 6.31. Solution¶

"""
* Assignment: Protocol Reflection Frozen
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 6 lines
* Time: 5 min

English:
    1. Create class `Point` with `x`, `y`, `z` attributes
    2. Prevent creation of new attributes
    3. Allow to define `x`, `y`, `z` but only at the initialization
    4. Prevent later modification of `x`, `y`, `z`
    5. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Stwórz klasę `Point` z atrybutami `x`, `y`, `z`
    2. Zablokuj tworzenie nowych atrybutów
    3. Pozwól na zdefiniowanie `x`, `y`, `z` ale tylko przy inicjalizacji
    4. Zablokuj późniejsze modyfikacje `x`, `y`, `z`
    5. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0

    >>> pt = Point(1, 2, 3)
    >>> pt.x, pt.y, pt.z
    (1, 2, 3)

    >>> pt.notexisting = 10
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    PermissionError: Cannot set other attributes than x, y, z

    >>> pt.x = 10
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    PermissionError: Cannot modify existing attributes

    >>> pt.y = 20
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    PermissionError: Cannot modify existing attributes

    >>> pt.z = 30
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    PermissionError: Cannot modify existing attributes
"""

from dataclasses import dataclass


@dataclass
class Point:
    x: int
    y: int
    z: int